Absolute temperature scale, 511
Absolute zero, 511
Absorbed dose, 1260
Absorption
excitation by, 1224–1225
in hydrogen atoms, 1139, 1225
of light, 1226–1227
of photons, 1228
in sodium, 1225
Absorption spectra, 1187, 1195, 1225
Accelerating reference frames, 122
Acceleration
angular, 98
average, 11, 44
centripetal, 96–97
changing velocity, 14
constant, 43–49, 84
force and, 118–119
free fall, 49–50
in a plane, 81–85
instantaneous, 54–57, 84
measuring, 52
radial, 100
sign of, 15–16, 44–45
tangential, 100
units, 44–45
Acceleration constraints, 170
Acceleration vector, 11–12, 14, 71–72, 83–84
Accelerometer, 46
AC circuits, 936–951
AC sources, 936–938
capacitor circuits, 938–942
impedance, 945
inductor circuits, 943–944
phase angle, 946
phasors, 936
power in, 948–951
RC filter circuits, 940–941
resistor circuits, 936–938
series RLC circuits, 944–947, 950–951
Accommodation, 1031–1032
Action/reaction pair, 162–166, 168–169, 171–178.
Activity of radioactive sample, 1253–1254
Adiabatic processes, 550–552
Adiabat, 551
Agent of force, 111, 123
Airplanes, lift in, 386
Air resistance, 47, 49, 115, 121–122, 140, 145, 147
Allowed transitions, 1224
Alpha decay, 1255–1256
Alpha rays, 1103, 1241
Alternating current, 936.
Ammeters, 805
Ampère-Maxwell law, 915–917, 921
Amperes (A), 780
Ampère’s law, 839–842, 913–914
Amplitude
in damped systems, 421–422
of oscillations, 403–405, 423–424
of traveling waves, 442, 446–447, 450, 458, 460
Amplitude function, 474–475
Angle of incidence, 993
Angle of reflection, 993
Angle of refraction, 996
Angular acceleration, 313, 679
Angular displacement, 94
Angular frequency, 404, 406
Angular magnification, 1035
Angular momentum
angular velocity and, 328–329
conservation of, 328
defining, 326
of hydrogen atom, 1210–1211
orbit shapes and, 1214–1215
quantization of, 1137–1138, 1210–1211
of a rigid body, 327–328
Angular momentum vector, 326–327
Angular position, 93–94
Angular resolution, 1043
Angular size, 1034
Angular velocity, 94–96, 328–329
Angular velocity vector, 324
Antennas, 925–926
Antibonding molecular orbital, 1198
Antimatter, 1084
Antinodal lines, 492, 963
Antinodes, 474
Antireflection coating, 489–490
Apertures, 992–993, 1029
Archimedes’ principle, 377, 390
Arc length, 93
Area vector, 694, 873
Assessing answers to problems, 24–26
Atmospheric pressure, 368–370, 373
Atomic clock, 21
Atomic magnets, 854–855
Atomic mass, 508–509, 1242–1243
Atomic mass number, 508–509
Atomic mass unit, 509
Atomic number, 509, 1107–1108, 1217, 1241
Atomic physics, 1209–1239
electron spin, 1215–1217
emission spectra, 1226–1227
excited states, 1223–1230
hydrogen atoms and, 1209–1215
lasers and, 1231–1234
multielectron atoms, 1217–1220
periodic table of the elements, 1220–1223
Atom interferometers, 1127
Atoms.
Bohr model of, 1129–1132, 1214
electricity and, 635
ideal gas and, 515–516
mass number, 1108
multielectron, 1217–1220
nuclear model of, 1104, 1107
Rutherford model of, 1105, 1138
shell model of, 1214–1215
Automatic windshield wipers, 1004
Avogadro’s number, 509–510
Balance and stability, 320
Ball-and-spring model of solids, 113–114
Ballistic pendulum, 279, 332–333
Balmer formula, 1097
Balmer series, 1097, 1139
Bandwidth, 1160
Bar charts, 241–242, 258, 271
Barometers, 372–373
Basic energy model, 212–213
Batteries
charge escalator model of, 753
current and, 786–787, 789
electric potential and, 726, 730
emf and, 753, 804
ideal, 753, 806–807
real, 805–807
in series, 753–754
short circuit of, 807
Beam splitter, 980
Beats, 493–495
Becquerel (Bq), 1253
Before-and-after representation, 213
Bernoulli’s equation, 382–386, 390
Beta decay, 1256–1257
Beta rays, 1103, 1241
Binding energy, 1136–1137, 1245–1247
Binomial approximation, 1077
Biot-Savart law, 830–833, 839
Black body, 555
Blackbody radiation, 555, 1094–1095
Blood pressure, 374
Bohr hydrogen atom, 1133–1140
Bohr radius, 1135
Bohr’s model of atomic quantization, 1129–1132
Boiling point, 514
Boltzmann’s constant, 518
Bonding molecular orbital, 1198
Boundary conditions
Schrödinger equation, 1175–1178
for standing sound waves, 479–481
for standing waves on a string, 476–477
Bound states, 1186, 1190
Bound systems, 356
Breakdown field strength, 661, 762–763
Brayton cycle, 608–610, 618
Bulk modulus, 390, 392–393
Buoyancy, 376–380, 390
Buoyant force, 376–379
Calorie, 539
Calorimetry, 545–548
Camera obscura, 992
Cameras, 1028–1030
controlling exposure, 1029–1030
detectors and, 1030
f-number, 1029–1030
focusing, 1028–1029
zoom lens, 1028–1029
Capacitance, 754–758, 815
Capacitive devices, 804
Capacitive reactance, 939
Capacitor circuits, 938–942
Capacitor current, 940
Capacitors.
charging, 755–756, 816
combinations of, 756
current and voltage in AC circuits, 938–942, 949–951
dielectric-filled, 760–761
discharging, 775, 817
electric field of, 674
energy stored in, 759–760
voltage of, 729, 762
Capacitor voltage, 754
Carbon dating, 1254–1255
Carnot cycle, 615–616, 618
Carnot engine, 612, 615–616
Cathode rays, 677, 1097–1098
Cathode-ray tube (CRT), 677–678
Causal influence, 1080–1081
Cell phones, 892, 924
Celsius scale, 511
Center of gravity, 312
Center of mass, 302–305
Central-force model, 190
Central maximum, 964, 970, 977
Centrifugal force, 195
Centripetal acceleration, 96–97
Charge carriers, 636,–773
Charge density, 665–666
Charge diagram, 637
Charge escalator model, 753
Charge model, 631–634
Charge polarization, 638–640
Charge quantization, 635
Charges
and atoms, 635
common distributions, 669–673
conservation of, 636, 781–782
continuous distribution of, 665–667, 735
electric potential of, 727, 734–736
experimenting with, 631–634
fundamental unit of, 635, 1102–1103
like, 632
neutral, 631–632, 635, 638
opposite, 632
point, 641–645, 648, 660–662
positive and negative, 634
units of, 641–642
Charge-to-mass ratio, 676, 847
Charging
capacitors and, 755–756, 816
by friction, 636
by induction, 640
insulators, 631, 637
parallel-plate capacitors, 755–756
Charging pads, 883
Chromatic aberration, 1041
Circuit diagrams, 797
Circuits, 797–817.
basic, 799
capacitor, 938–942
complete, 799
DC circuits, 936
elements of, 797
energy and power in, 801–803
grounded, 812–814
inductor, 943–944
Kirchhoff’s laws and, 798–801, 807
LC, 891–893
LR, 893–895
parallel resistors, 807–810
RC, 814–816
resistor, 810, 936–938
series resistors, 803–805, 809
series RLC, 944–947, 950–951
Circular-aperture diffraction, 977–978
Circular motion.
angular acceleration, 98
angular velocity, 94
nonuniform, 98–100, 198–199
orbits, 193–195, 343
period of, 353–354
problem-solving strategy, 199
simple harmonic motion and, 406–407
uniform. See Uniform circular motion
Circular waves, 457
Classically forbidden regions, 1185–1188
Classical physics, 917, 961, 1109
Clocks
atomic, 21
light, 1065–1066
synchronizing, 1060–1061
time dilation and, 1065–1068
Closed-cycle devices, 601, 604
Closed shell, 1219
Coefficient of friction, 141–142
Coefficient of linear expansion, 512
Coefficient of performance, 604–605
Coefficient of volume expansion, 512
Coherent light, 1231
Cold reservoir, 600–605
Collisional excitation, 1130, 1224–1225
Collisions
elastic, 280–282
force due to, 567–568
inelastic, 278–279
mean free path between, 566
mean time between, 571, 779
molecular, 565–566
pressure and, 567–568
Color
human color vision, 1031
dispersion and, 1038–1040
in solids, 1226–1227
Compasses, 827–829
Components of vectors, 70–71
Component vectors, 69–71
Compression, 390–392
adiabatic, 550–551
in sound waves, 450
Compton scattering, 1124–1125
Concave mirrors, 1013–1016
Condensation point, 514
Condenser microphones, 755
Conduction
electrical, 773–775
heat, 553–554
model of, 778–779
Conductivity
electrical, 783–784
thermal, 553–554
Conductors
charge carriers, 773
electric charges and forces, 634, 636–640
in electrostatic equilibrium, 637, 706–708, 750–751
Conservative forces, 255–256
Conservation of angular momentum, 328, 334
Conservation of charge, 636, 781–782
Conservation of energy
in charge interactions, 727
isolated systems, 248
law of, 211, 248
problem-solving strategy, 249
in relativity, 1085–1086
in simple harmonic motion, 410
Conservation of mass, 284
Conservation of mechanical energy, 256–257
Conservation of momentum, 272–278, 1078–1079
Conservative forces, 255–256, 723
Constant-acceleration model, 46–47
Constant angular acceleration model, 99, 101
Constant force, 117–118, 217–219, 718
Constant-force model, 135–136
Constant-pressure (isobaric) process, 520–522
Constant-temperature (isothermal) process, 522–523
Constant-torque model, 316
Constant-volume (isochoric) process, 520
Constant-volume gas thermometer, 511, 520
Constructive interference, 472, 484, 490–491, 962
Contact force, 110–111
Continuity, equation of, 381–382
Continuous spectra, 1094–1095
Contour map, 730, 733–734
Convection, 554
Converging lenses, 1002–1005
Convex mirrors, 1014–1015
Coordinate systems, 69–70
right-handed, 325
rtz, for circular dynamics, 188
tilted axes, 74
Cornea (human eye), 1031
Correspondence principle, 1183–1185
Cosmology, 343
Coulomb (C), 641
Coulomb electric field, 882
Coulomb’s law, 640–642, 699–700, 702, 913
Coupled oscillations, 424–427
Covalent bond, 1197–1198
Critical angle, 999–1000
Critical point, 515
Crookes tubes, 1097–1098
Crossed-field experiment, 1099–1101
Crossover frequency, 941
Cross product, 219, 325, 831–832
Curie (Ci), 1253–1254
Current
batteries and, 786–787
conventional, 780–781
creating, 775–779
current density and, 779–780
displacement, 913–916, 918
electron, 773–775
and magnetism, 828–829
as motion of charges, 636
root-mean-square, 948
Current density, 779–780
Current loops
forces and torques on, 853–854
as magnetic dipole, 837–838
magnetic field of, 832, 835–837, 843
Curve of binding energy, 1246–1247
Cyclotron, 848–849
Cyclotron frequency, 847
Cyclotron motion, 846–848
Daltons (Da), 509
Damped oscillation, 420–422
Damping constant, 420
Daughter nuclei, 1253, 1255
DC circuits, 936
de Broglie wavelength, 1126, 1172–1173
Decay, nuclear, 1252–1259
Decay equation, 1228–1230
Decay rate, 1229
Decay series, 1259
Decibels (dB), 460–461
Defibrillator, 759, 763
Degrees of freedom, 572–573
Density
average, 377–378
linear charge density, 665
linear mass density, 438
mass density, 365–366
number density, 508
surface charge density, 665
Derivatives, 38–39
Destructive interference, 472, 484–486, 489–491, 962–963
Deuterium, 1243
Diatomic gas, 509, 516, 607
Diatomic molecules, 573–574
Dielectric constant, 762
Dielectrics, 760–763
Dielectric strength, 763
Diesel cycle, 608
Diffraction
circular-aperture, 977–978, 1041–1042
of electrons, 1126, 1154
order of, 968
single-slit, 970–976
Diffraction grating, 967–969
Diffraction-limited lens, 1042
Diffuse reflection, 994
Diopter (D), 1028
Dipole moment, 663
Dipoles. See Electric dipole; Magnetic dipoles
Discrete spectra, 1096–1097, 1139
Disk of charge, 670–672, 736
Dispersion, 1038–1040
Displaced fluid, 377
Displacement, 6–8
angular, 94
of waves, 441–442
work and, 215–216
Displacement current, 913–916, 918
Displacement vectors, 6–9, 66–67, 74
Dissipative forces, 225–227
Diverging lenses, 1002, 1007–1008
Doppler effect, 461–464
Dose, absorbed, 1
Dose equivalent, 1260
Dot product, 219–221
Double-slit experiment, 963–964, 1149, 1154
Double-slit interference
analyzing, 964–966
intensity of, 966–967
interference fringes, 964–965
Drag coefficients, 146–147
Drag force
at high Reynolds number, 146–148
linear, 148
at low Reynolds number, 148–149
quadratic, 147
Stokes’ law, 149
terminal speed, 147–148
viscous, 148–149
Drift speed, 773–775, 781
Driven oscillations, 423–424
Driving frequency, 423
Dynamics
fluid, 380–382
in one dimension, 132–162
problem-solving strategy, 134
rotational, 313–315
of simple harmonic motion (SHM), 411–413
in two dimensions, 187–200
Earthquakes, 224
Eddy currents, 872
Effective focal length, 1027
Efficiency
Carnot engines, 615–616
entropy and, 617–619
thermal, 601–602
Einstein, Albert
explanation of photoelectric effect, 1119–1122
principle of relativity, 1056–1059
Elastic collisions, 280–282
Elasticity
tensile stress, 390–391
volume stress, 392
Young’s modulus, 390–392
Elastic potential energy, 245–248
Electric charge. See Charges
Electric dipole
electric field of, 663–664
electric potential energy of, 724–725, 734
motion of, 678–680
Electric field, 645–650, 660–680
of capacitors, 674
of common charge distributions, 669–673
concept of, 646
of a continuous charge distribution, 665–667
Coulomb and non-Coulomb, 882
of a dipole, 663–664
of disk of charge, 670–672
electric potential and, 745–746
electrostatic equilibrium and, 750
energy in, 760, 890–891
field model, 646–647
geometry of potential and, 748–749
induced, 761,882–884
of line of charge, 660, 668–669
motion of a charged particle in, 675–676
motion of a dipole in, 678–680
of multiple point charges, 661–662
outside a sphere of charge, 703
of parallel-plate capacitors, 673–675, 754–755
of plane of charge, 660, 672–673, 705–706
of a point charge, 648, 660–662
problem-solving strategy, 667
of a ring of charge, 669–670, 747
symmetry and, 689–690
transformation of, 908–910
typical strengths, 661
uniform, 675
Electric field lines, 664–665
Electric field strength, 647
Electric flux, 691–698
inside a parallel-plate capacitor, 695
of a nonuniform electric field, 695–696
through a closed surface, 697–698
Electric force, 640, 642–643, 647, 723
Electricity
charge model, 631–634
Coulomb’s law, 640
generating, 618
Electric potential, 725–743
batteries and, 726, 730
of a charged disk, 736
of a charged sphere, 733–734
of continuous distribution of charge, 735
electric field and, 745–746
versus electric potential energy, 726
geometry of field and, 748–749
of multiple point charges, 734
of a parallel-plate capacitor, 728–732, 746
of a point charge, 732–733
problem-solving strategy, 727
sources of, 752–754
Electric potential energy, 718–725
of charge in uniform electric field, 719–720
of a dipole, 724–725
versus electric potential, 726
of point charges, 721–722
Electrocardiogram, 734
Electrodes, 672, 676–677
Electromagnetic fields
induced, 885
Maxwell’s equations, 916–918
transformation of, 908–911
Electromagnetic induction, 867–896
Faraday’s law and, 867, 878–879, 881
induced currents, 867, 870–879, 881, 885–887
induced fields, 882–884
Lenz’s law and, 875–878
Electromagnetic spectrum, 452
Electromagnetic waves
antennas, 925–926
energy and intensity, 923–924
Maxwell’s theory of, 885, 918
polarization of, 926–928
properties of, 923–924
radiation pressure, 924–925
speed of light and, 451–452
structure of, 918–919
Electromagnets, 837, 844, 872
Electron capture, 1257
Electron cloud, 635, 639, 1212
Electron configuration, 1219
Electron current, 773–775
Electron gun, 677
Electrons
beams, 677
cathode rays and, 1099–1101
as charge carriers, 773–774
charge of, 634–636
diffraction of, 1126
discovery of, 1099–1101
sea of, 636, 773–775
spin of, 855, 1215–1217
Electron spin, 855, 1215–1217
Electron volt (eV), 1105–1106
Electroscope, 637–640
Electrostatic constant, 641
Electrostatic equilibrium, 637, 706–708, 750–751
Electrostatic force, 642
Elements, 1107, 1220–1223
emf
of batteries, 753, 804
induced, 878
motional, 868–869, 912
Emission spectra, 1096–1097, 1138–1139, 1226
Emissivity, 555
Endoscope, 1017
Energy, 211–213.
bar charts, 241–242, 258
basic energy model, 212–213
binding energy, 1136–1137, 1245–1247
in circuits, 801–803
in the electric field, 760, 890
of electromagnetic waves, 923–924
forms of, 211
heat and, 212
ionization energy, 1107, 1136–1137, 1212, 1223
law of conservation of, 211, 248–249
in magnetic fields, 890–891
mechanical, 244
of photons, 1119, 1123
problem-solving strategy, 249
quantization of, 1127–1129, 1176
relativistic, 1081–1086
rotational, 305–307
simple harmonic motion and, 409–410
total, 1082–1083
Energy bar charts, 241–242, 258–259
Energy density, 760, 763
Energy diagrams, 250–252
Energy equation, 533
Energy-level diagrams
hydrogen atoms, 1138
Energy levels
hydrogen atoms, 1135–1136, 1211–1212
quantization and, 1128
vibrational, 1194–1195
Energy principle, 211–212, 221, 257–258, 270, 532
Energy reservoir, 599–605
Energy transfer
heat and, 533
rate of (power), 228–229
Energy-transfer diagrams, 599–600, 604
Energy transformation, 212
Entropy
disorder and, 580–581
heat engines and, 617–619
of heating, 586–587
of an ideal gas, 587
interactions and, 588–589
irreversible processes, 589–590
isothermal processes, 585–586
life and, 590–591
second law of thermodynamics and, 579–580
Environment, 164, 211–212
Equation of continuity, 381–382
Equation of motion, 412–413, 416–418
Equilibrium
electrostatic, 637, 706–708
hydrostatic, 370–371
mechanical, 121, 132
phase, 513
stable and unstable, 252
static, 317–320
thermal, 507
Equilibrium model, 132–134
Equipartition theorem, 572
Equipotential surface, 730, 733–734, 749
Equivalence principle, 346
Equivalent capacitance, 756–757
Equivalent resistance, 804, 808
Escape speed, 351
Estimates, order of magnitude, 25–26
Events, 1059–1061, 1074
Excitation, 1224–1226
Excited states, 1223–1230
Explosion, 283–286
Exponential decay, 151, 421
Extended objects, 226
External forces, 165
Eyepiece, 1035
Eyes, 1031–1033, 1044
Fahrenheit scale, 511
Farad (F), 754
Faraday’s law
electromagnetic fields and, 912, 917
electromagnetic waves and, 920–921
induced currents and, 878–879, 881
Far point of eye, 1032
Farsightedness, 1032–1033
Ferromagnetism, 855–856
Fiber optics, 1000, 1017
Field diagram, 648
Field model, 646–647
Fields, 646.
Finite potential wells, 1185–1190
First law of thermodynamics, 540–541, 579, 599
Fission, 1085
Flat-earth approximation, 138, 239–240, 351–352
Floating, 377–379
Fluid dynamics, 380–382
Fluids
Archimedes’ principle, 377
Bernoulli’s equation, 382–385
buoyant force, 376–377
density, 146
equation of continuity, 381–382
flow of, 365, 382–390
ideal, 380
laminar flow, 380–381, 389
Poiseuille’s equation, 388–390
viscous, 146, 380, 386–390
wave equation in, 454–455
Fluorescence, 1141
Flux. See Electric flux; Magnetic flux
f-number, 1029–1030
Focal length, 1003, 1012, 1027
Focal point, 1002
Force, 111–130.
acceleration and, 118–119
agent of, 111, 123
buoyant, 376–379
central, 190–193
centrifugal, 195
combining, 112
conservative, 255–256
constant, 117–118, 135–136
contact, 111, 123
dissipative, 225–227
drag, 115, 145–148
electric, 115, 640, 642
external, 165
friction, 114–115, 141–143, 166–168
identifying, 115–117
impulsive, 268
as interactions, 120–121, 123, 164
long-range, 111, 646
magnetic, 115
net force, 112, 122
nonconservative, 255–257
normal, 114
potential energy and, 254–255
restoring, 223–224
superposition of, 112
tension, 113–114, 173–174
thrust, 115
unit of, 119
Force sensors, 120
Free-body diagrams, 123–125, 166, 170
Free fall, 49–51
Freezing point, 513
Frequency
angular, 404, 406
beat, 494
crossover, 941, 943
cyclotron, 847
driving, 423
fundamental, 477
of mass on spring, 410
natural, 423
of pendulum, 417, 419
resonance, 423–424, 946
Friction
causes of, 145
coefficients of, 141–142
kinetic, 115, 141–142
model of, 142–143
rolling, 142
static, 115, 141
Fringe field, 674
Fringe spacing, 965–966
Fundamental frequency, 477
Fundamental quantum of energy, 1128
Fundamental unit of charge, 635, 1102–1103
Galilean relativity, 911, 1053–1056
Galilean transformations
of electromagnetic fields, 910–911
of position, 1054–1055
of velocity, 91, 907, 1055
Gamma decay, 1258–1259
Gamma rays, 1190, 1241
Gas discharge tube, 1096
Gases.
ideal, 515–518
molecules and, 516
monatomic and diatomic, 516, 571–572
pressure in, 368, 372–373, 567–569
specific heats of, 547–549
Gas turbine engine, 608
Gauge pressure, 372
Gaussian surface
electric field and, 692–693, 912–913
electric flux and, 692–693
symmetry of, 692, 699
Gauss’s law, 689–709
versus Coulomb’s law, 699–700, 702
electric flux and, 701–702
Gauss’s law for magnetism, 912–913, 917
Geiger counter, 764, 1251
Generators, 871, 885–886
Geomagnetism, 827–829
Geosynchronous orbits, 354–355
Global warming, 556
GPS systems, 1068
Graphical addition of vectors, 67
Gravitational constant (G), 138, 345
Gravitational field, 646, 719
Gravitational force
Newton’s law of gravity and, 138–139, 345–346
weight and, 140, 345–346
Gravitational mass, 119, 346
Gravitational potential energy
flat-earth approximation, 239–240, 351–352
of masses, 349–350
zero of, 241
Gravitational torque, 312–313
Gravity
center of, 312
little g and big G, 347–348
Newton’s law of, 138–139, 345–346
on rotating earth, 196
Gray (Gy), 1260
Greenhouse effect, 556
Grounded, 638
Grounded circuit, 812–814
Ground state, 1130, 1138–1139, 1223
Gyroscope, 330–332
Half-life, 422, 1252–1253
Hall effect, 849–850
Hall voltage, 850
Harmonics, 477
Hearing, threshold of, 460
Heat, 537–539
defining, 212, 538
specific heat of solids and liquids, 542
temperature and thermal energy versus, 539
thermal interactions, 533, 538
transfer of, 553–556
units of, 539
work and, 538, 599–601
Heat engines, 599–619
Brayton cycle, 608–610, 618
Carnot cycle, 615–616, 618
ideal-gas, 606–610
perfect, 602, 605
perfectly reversible, 612–616
problem-solving strategy, 607
second law of thermodynamics and, 617–618
thermal efficiency of, 601–602
Heat exchangers, 609
Heat of fusion, 544
Heat of transformation, 543–544
Heat of vaporization, 544
Heat transfer, 575–577
Heat-transfer mechanisms, 553–556
Heisenberg uncertainty principle, 1161–1163
Helicopters, 313
Helium-neon lasers, 1233–1234
Henry (H), 887
Hertz (Hz), 403
Histogram, 565
History graph, 439–440, 1161
Holography, 981–982
Hooke’s law, 223
Horsepower, 228
Hot reservoir, 600–605
Huygens’ principle, 971
Hydraulic lift, 374–376
Hydrogen atom
angular momentum, 1209–1212
Bohr’s analysis of, 1133–1140
energy levels of, 1135–1136, 1211–1212
excitation of, 1226
spectrum, 1138–1141
stationary states of, 1133–1136, 1209–1210
wave functions and probabilities, 1212–1215
Hydrogen-like ions, 1139–1140
Hydrostatic equilibrium, 370–371
Hydrostatic pressure, 370–372
Hyperopia, 1032–1033
Ideal batteries, 753, 806–807
Ideal fluid, 380
Ideal gas, 515–518, 587
Ideal-gas heat engines, 606–610
Ideal-gas law, 516–519
Ideal-gas processes
adiabatic process, 550–551, 587
constant-pressure (isobaric) process, 520–522
constant-temperature (isothermal) process, 522–523
constant-volume (isochoric) process, 520
first law of thermodynamics and, 540–541
pV diagram, 519–522
quasi-static processes, 519
work in, 533–537
Ideal-gas refrigerators, 610–611
Ideal insulator, 788
Ideal spring, 223
Ideal wire, 788
Image distance, 995, 1001
Image formation
by refraction, 1001–1002
with spherical mirrors, 1013–1016
by spherical surfaces, 1008–1010
with thin lenses, 1003, 1012–1013
Image plane, 1004
Impedance, 945
Impulse approximation, 272
Impulse, 268–272
Impulsive force, 268
Inclined plane, motion on, 51–54
Independent particle approximation (IPA), 1218
Index of refraction, 452–453, 982, 996–997, 999
Induced currents
applications of, 885–887
in a circuit, 870–871
eddy currents, 872
Faraday’s law and, 867, 878–879, 881
Lenz’s law and, 875–878
magnetic flux and, 872–879
motional emf and, 870
Induced electric dipole, 663
Induced electric field, 761, 882–884
Induced emf, 878
Induced magnetic dipoles, 856
Induced magnetic field, 885, 915–916
Inductance, 887
Induction, 640
Induction, charging by 883
Inductive reactance, 943
Inductor circuits, 943–944
Inductors, 887–890, 944, 949–950
Inelastic collisions, 278–279
Inertia, 119, 121
Inertial mass, 119, 346
Inertial reference frames, 122–123, 907–908, 1054, 1069
Instantaneous acceleration, 54–57, 84
Instantaneous velocity, 37–40
Insulators
dielectrics, 760–761
electric charges and forces, 636–640
Integrals, 42–43
Intensity
of double-slit interference, 976–977
of electromagnetic waves, 923–924
of sound, 459–460
Interacting objects
action/reaction pair, 164–165, 169
analyzing, 165–166
Newton’s third law and, 120–121, 168
problem-solving strategy, 171–172
Interaction diagram, 164–166
Interaction energy, 238, 718
Interference.
mathematics of, 487–488
in one dimension, 483–486
and phase difference, 485–486
photon analysis of, 1151–1152
problem-solving strategy, 492–493
in two and three dimensions, 490–493
wave analysis of, 1149–1150
Interference fringes, 964–965
Interferometers, 980–982
Invariant, 1072
Inverse-square law, 345, 640
Inverted image, 1004
Ionization, 635–636
Ionization energy, 1107, 1136–1137, 1212, 1223
Ionization limit, 1138
Ionizing radiation, 1251
Ions, 635, 1107
Iris (human eye), 1031
Irreversible processes, 577–581, 589–590
Isentropic process, 587
Isobaric process, 520–522, 536
Isobars, 1242
Isochoric process, 520, 536
Isolated systems
conservation of energy, 248
conservation of momentum, 274
Isothermal process, 522–523, 536–537, 585–586
Isotherms, 523
Isotopes, 1108, 1242
Jet engines, 549
Joules (J), 538
Kelvin scale, 511–512
Kelvin (K), 511–512
Kepler’s laws of planetary motion, 343, 353–356
Kilogram (kg), 22
Kilowatt hours, 803
Kinematics
in one dimension, 32–64
rotational, 301–302
of simple harmonic motion, 403–405
in two dimensions, 81–109
Kinetic energy, 214
relativistic, 1082
of a rolling object, 322
rotational, 305–307
temperature and, 569–571
work and, 213–216
Kinetic friction, 115, 141–142
Kirchhoff’s junction law, 782, 798, 807
Kirchhoff’s loop law, 750, 798–799
Laminar flow, 380–381, 389
Laser printers, 642
Lasers
created using stimulated emission, 1231–1232
helium-neon, 1233–1234
population inversion, 1232
quantum-well, 1189
ruby laser, 1232–1233
Lateral magnification, 1006
Launch angle, 86
LC circuits, 891–893
Length contraction, 1069–1073
Lenses
aberrations, 1041
angular resolution, 1043
in combination, 1026–1028
converging, 1002–1005
diffraction-limited, 1042
diverging, 1002, 1007–1008
focal lengths of, 1003, 1012
magnifying, 1013, 1034–1035
power of, 1027–1028
ray tracing and, 1002–1005
thin lenses, 1002–1008
zoom, 1028–1029
Lens maker’s equation, 1011
Lens plane, 1003
Lenz’s law, 875–878
Lever arm, 311
Lifetime (of excited states), 1228–1230
Lift, 386
Light.
absorption of, 1226–1227
coherent, 1231
as electromagnetic wave, 885, 961
emission and absorption of, 1094–1097
interference and, 961–967
photon model of, 962, 1123–1124
ray model of, 962, 991–994
speed of, 451–452, 1057–1058
wave model of, 962, 978–979
Light clock, 1065–1066
Light rays, 991–992, 1001
Light year, 1068
LIGO (Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory), 980
Linear acceleration, 10–12, 14
Linear charge density, 665
Linear density, 438
Linear drag, 148
Linear restoring force, 418
Line integrals, 839–840
Line of action, 311
Line of charge, 660, 668–669
Line of nuclear stability, 1245
Liquid crystal displays (LCDs), 926
Liquid-drop model, 1244
Liquids.
characteristics of, 507
phase changes, 513–514
pressure in, 370–371, 376
Longitudinal waves, 437, 441, 454
Long-range force, 111
Lorentz force law, 917
Lorentz transformations, 1073–1074, 1077–1078
Loschmidt number, 593
LR circuits, 893–895
Lyman series, 1139
Macroscopic systems, 507–524
atoms and moles, 508–510
ideal gas, 515–518
phases of matter and, 507
state variables, 507
temperature, 510–512
thermal expansion, 512–513
Macrostates, 581–582
Magnetic dipole moment, 838, 855, 857
Magnetic dipoles
current loop and, 836–838
induced, 856
magnetic poles of 827, 837
Magnetic domains, 855–856
Magnetic field lines, 829
Magnetic fields, 827–857
Ampère’s law, 839–842
Biot-Savart law, 830–833, 839
of current, 828, 832–836, 842
of current loop, 832, 835–837, 843
discovery of, 828
of the earth, 836
energy in, 890–891
Gauss’s law for, 839, 912–913
induced, 885, 915–916
of moving charge, 830–831
of solenoids, 832, 843–844
unit of, 830
transformation of, 908–909
typical strengths, 830
Magnetic flux, 872–874
Faraday’s law and, 878–879
induced currents and, 872–879
Lenz’s law and, 875–878
Magnetic force
on current-carrying wire, 850–851
on moving charge, 845–850
right-hand rule for, 845
between two parallel wires, 851–852
Magnetic materials, 827
Magnetic poles, 827
Magnetic quantum number, 1209
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 838, 844, 880–881, 1261–1262
Magnetism
atomic, 854–855
experimenting with, 827
ferromagnetism, 855–856
geomagnetism, 827–829
properties of matter and, 854–857
Magnification, 1034–1036
angular, 1035
lateral, 1006
Magnifier/magnifying glass, 1034
Magnifying lens, 1013, 1026
Magnitude of force, 119
Magnitude of vectors, 66
Malus’s law, 927–928
Manometers, 372–373
Mass
atomic, 509
center of, 302–303
gravitational, 119, 346
inertial, 119, 346
mass-energy equivalence, 1083–1085
measurement of, 137, 149
weight versus, 137–140
Mass density, 365
Mass-energy equivalence, 1083–1084
Massless string approximation, 174–175
Mass number (atomic), 1108, 1241
Mass spectrometer, 1108
Matter waves, 1126–1127
Maxwell’s equations, 916–918
Mean free path, 566
Mechanical energy, 244
Mechanical equilibrium, 121, 132, 533
Mechanical interaction, 533
Mechanical waves, 437, 454
Medium, 437
light rays in, 996–997
of mechanical wave, 437
speed of sound in, 450
wave speed in, 438
Melting/boiling temperatures, 544–545
Melting point, 513
Metal detector, 887
Metals, 633, 636, 773–774
Meter (m), 22
Michelson interferometer, 980–982
Micro/macro connection, 563–591
entropy, 579–581, 584–589
heat transfer and thermal equilibrium, 575–577
microstates, 581–582
molecular speeds and collisions, 565–566
multiplicity, 581–584, 586
pressure in a gas, 567–569
second law of thermodynamics and, 577–581
temperature and, 569–571
thermal energy and specific heat, 571–574
Microphones, 755
Microscopes, 1035–1036
Microstates, 581–582
Millikan oil-drop experiment, 1102
Minimum spot size of focused light, 1042
Mirror equation, 1016
Mirrors
plane, 994–995
spherical, 1013–1016
Missing order, 977
Models and modeling, 4–5
basic energy model, 212–213, 258
Bohr’s model of the atom, 1129–1132
charge escalator model, 753
charge model, 631–634
electric field models, 640
ideal-wire, 788
nuclear model of atoms, 1104, 1107
particle model, 4–5
photon model of light, 962
quantum-mechanical models, 1174, 1195–1198
ray model of light, 962, 991–994
Rutherford model of the atom, 1105, 1138
shell model of atoms, 1214–1215
thermodynamic energy model, 540
wave model of light, 962, 978–979
Modes, 477
Modulation, 494
Molar mass, 509–510
Molar specific heat, 542–543, 547, 574
Molecular bonds, 113, 250, 253–254
Molecular mass, 509
Molecular vibration, 254, 1194–1195
Moles, 508–510
Moment arm, 311
Moment of inertia, 306–308
Momentum.
conservation of, 272–278
defining, 268
impulse and, 268–272
law of conservation of, 275
momentum principle, 269
problem-solving strategy, 271–272, 276–278
relativistic, 1078–1080
total, 273–274
in two dimensions, 285–286
Momentum bar chart, 271
Momentum principle, 269–270
Monatomic gas, 509, 516, 571–572, 607
Motion.
along a line, 132–162
of a charged particle in electric field, 675–676
with constant acceleration, 43–49
cyclotron, 846–848
free fall, 49–51
on an inclined plane, 51–54
in one dimension, 15–17
in a plane, 187–200
relative, 90
rolling, 320–323
in two dimensions, 81–85
uniform, 33–36
Motional emf, 868–869, 912
Motion diagrams, 3–4
acceleration vectors, 11–12, 14
displacement vectors, 7
examples, 3–5, 12–13
velocity vectors, 8–9
Motion graphs, 53–54
Motor, 853–854
MRIs. See Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Multiplicity, 581–584, 586
Musical acoustics, 479–480, 482–483
Myopia, 1032–1033
Natural abundance, 1242
Natural frequency, 423
Near point of eye, 1032
Nearsightedness, 1032–1033
Net force, 75, 112, 122
Neutral buoyancy, 378
Neutrino, 1258
Neutron number, 1242
Neutrons, 1108
Newtons (N), 119
Newton’s first law of motion, 121–123
Newton’s law of gravity, 345–347
Newton’s second law of motion, 120–121
examples of, 152–155
momentum and, 269
problem-solving, 134–135
for rotational motion, 313–314
Newton’s theory of gravity, 346
Newton’s third law of motion, 164–185
conservation of momentum and, 272, 275, 277
interacting-object problem-solving strategy, 171–172
reasoning with, 168–169
Newton’s zeroth law, 120
Nodal lines, 492, 963
Nodes, 474–475
Noise-canceling headphones, 484
Nonconservative forces, 255–257
Non-Coulomb electric field, 882
Normal force, 114
Normalization of wave functions, 1157
Normal mode, 424–426
North pole, 827–829, 837
Nuclear decay, 1252–1253
Nuclear energy, 1182
Nuclear fission, 1085
Nuclear magnetic resonance (nmr), 1262
Nuclear model of the atom, 1104, 1107
Nuclear physics, 1189–1190, 1241–1263
biological applications of, 1260–1263
decay mechanisms, 1255–1259
nuclear size and density, 1243–1244
nuclear stability, 1244–1247
nuclear structure, 1241–1244
nucleons and, 1189–1190, 1241–1242
radiation and radioactivity, 1250–1255
shell model, 1248–1250
strong force and, 1247–1248
Nucleons, 1189–1190, 1241–1242, 1246
Nucleus.
daughter, 1253, 1255
discovery of, 1103–1105
shell model of, 1248–1250
size and density, 1243–1244
Number density, 508
Object distance, 1001
Objective, 1035
Object plane, 1004
Object (in optics), 991–992, 1001, 1004
Ohm (Ω), 785
Ohmic materials, 787–788
Ohm’s law, 785–789, 798, 808
Optical axis, 1001
Optical cavity, 1232
Optical instruments, 1026–1044
cameras, 1028–1030
human vision, 1031–1033, 1044
magnifying lenses, 1034–1037
microscopes, 1035–1036
resolution of, 1040–1043
telescopes, 1036–1037
Optics, 961, 991.
Orbital quantum number, 1209
Orbits
circular, 194–195, 343
elliptical, 343, 353, 355–356
geosynchronous, 354–355
Kepler’s laws, 343
Order of diffraction, 968
Order-of-magnitude estimate, 25–26
Oscillating emf, 936
Oscillations, 403–435.
coupled, 424–426
damped, 420–422
driven, 423–424
period of, 403
phase of, 407
vertical, 414–415
Oscillators
analyzing, 413–414
coupled, 424–426
electrical, 891–893
lightly damped, 420–422
natural frequency of, 423–424
quantum harmonic, 1192–1194
Otto cycle, 608
Parabolic trajectory, 85, 103, 188
Parallel-axis theorem, 309
Parallel bundle of rays, 992
Parallel capacitors, 756
Parallel-plate capacitor
capacitance of, 754–755
electric field of, 673–675, 754–755
electric flux inside, 695
electric potential of, 728–732, 746
Parallel resistors, 807–810
Paraxial rays, 1002
Parent nucleus, 1255
“Particle in a box”
de Broglie standing waves, 1128
energies and wave functions, 1177–1180
energy-level diagram, 1179
interpreting the solution, 1180–1183
potential-energy function, 1177
Particle model, 4–5
Pascal (Pa), 367
Pascal’s principle, 371, 374
Path-length difference, 485, 491, 962–963
Pauli exclusion principle, 1219–1220
Pendulum
ballistic, 279, 332–333
damped, 422
physical, 419
simple, 419
Penetration distance, 1188
Perfect destructive interference, 963
Perfectly elastic collision, 280–281
Perfectly inelastic collision, 278–279
Perfectly reversible engines, 612–616
Period, 92
of oscillations, 403
of orbit, 353–354
of wave, 442
Periodic table of the elements, 1220–1223
Permanent magnet, 837, 856
Permeability constant, 830
Permittivity constant, 641
Phase (oscillation), 407
Phase (wave), 458
Phase angle (AC circuit), 946
Phase changes of matter, 507, 513–515, 543–544
Phase constant, 407–408
Phase diagram, 514
Phase difference, 458, 485–486
Phase equilibrium, 513
Phasor diagrams, 974
Phasors, 936, 974
Photoconductors, 642
Photocopiers, 642
Photoelectric effect, 1116–1122
Photolithography, 1042
Photons, 1122–1126.
analysis of interference, 1151–1152
connecting wave and photon views of interference, 1152
energy of, 1122–1123
photon model of light, 962, 1123–1124
Physical pendulum, 419
Pictorial representations, 18–19, 992
Piezoelectric material, 404
Pinhole camera, 992
Pivot point, 310
Pixel, 1030
Planck’s constant, 1119, 1134
Plane mirror, 994–995
Plane of charge, 660, 672–673, 705–706
Plane of incidence, 993
Plane of polarization, 926
Planets, 343, 353–355.
Plane wave, 457
Point charges, 641
electric field of, 648, 660–662
electric potential energy of, 721–722
electric potential of, 732–733
Poiseuille’s equation, 388–390
Polarization
charge polarization, 638–639
of electromagnetic waves, 926–928
plane of, 926
Polarization force, 639
Polarizer axis, 927
Polarizing filter, 927–928
Population inversion, 1232
Position vector, 5
Position-versus-time graphs, 16–17, 34, 36, 38–39
Positron, 1084, 1256
Potassium-argon dating, 1254
Potential difference, 727, 752, 785, 787, 808, 888–889
Potential energy, 238–239
elastic, 245–248
electric, 719–724
force and, 254–255
gravitational, 239–240, 242–244, 247–248
inside the nucleus, 1247–1248
stored in fields, 250
zero of, 241
Potential-energy curve, 250–251
Potential-energy function, 1192, 1196
Potential graph, 730, 733
Potential wells,1185–1186
Power
in AC circuits, 948–951
in DC circuits, 801–803
of a lens, 1027–1028
mechanical, 228–229
of waves, 459–460
unit of, 228
Power factor, 950
Poynting vector, 923
Precession, 330–332
Precession frequency, 330
Prefixes, 22
Presbyopia, 1032
Pressure
atmospheric, 368–370, 373
blood, 374
causes of, 367–368
in gases, 368, 372–373, 517, 567–569
gauge, 372
hydrostatic, 370–372
measurement of, 372–373
unit of, 367
Pressure gauge, 372
Pressure gradient, 388
Pressure wave, 480
Primary coil, 886
Principal quantum number, 1209
Principle of equivalence, 346
Principle of relativity, 1056–1059
Principle of superposition, 472, 734
Prism, 1038–1039
Probability, 1150–1151
of detecting photons, 1152
of detecting a particle, 1164
Probability density, 1153, 1213–1214
Problem-solving strategies, 20–21
Projectile motion, 3, 85–89
Proper length, 1070
Proper time, 1066–1067
Proportionality, 118
Proportionality constant, 118
Propulsion, 166–168
Protons, 635, 1108, 1241
Pulleys, 175–177.
Pupil (human eye), 1031
pV diagram, 519–522
Quadrants of coordinate system, 70
Quadratic drag, 147
Quanta of light, 1119–1122
Quantization, 1116–1141
of angular momentum, 1137–1138, 1210–1211
Bohr’s model of atomic, 1129–1132
of charge, 635
of energy, 1127–1129
Schrödinger equation and, 1176
Quantum harmonic oscillator, 1192–1194
Quantum jump, 1130, 1176, 1181–1182
Quantum mechanics, 1172–1202
correspondence principle, 1183–1185
finite potential wells, 1185–1186
particle in a box, 1177–1183
potential wells, 1185–1186
problem-solving strategy, 1176
quantum-mechanical models, 1174, 1195–1198
quantum-mechanical tunneling, 1198–1202
Schrödinger equation, 1172–1176
wave functions, 1149, 1154–1155, 1190–1191
Quantum number
in hydrogen atoms, 1209–1210
Pauli exclusion principle and, 1219–1220
symbols representing, 1210
Quantum-well devices, 1188–1189
Quasi-static processes, 519
Quasistellar objects, 464
Radial acceleration, 100
Radial axis, 189
Radial probability density, 1213–1214
Radial wave functions, 1213–1214
Radians, 93
Radiation, 1251–1255
absorbed dose, 1260
blackbody, 555, 1094–1095
ionizing, 1251
medical uses of, 1261–1263
radioactivity, 284, 1103, 1242, 1250–1255
thermal, 554–556, 1094
Radiation pressure, 924–925
Radioactive decay, 1109, 1251
Rainbow, 1039
Rarefactions, 450
Rate equation, 1229
Ray diagrams, 992
Rayleigh scattering, 1040
Rayleigh’s criterion, 1043
Ray model of light, 991–994
Ray optics, 991–1017
ray model of light, 991–994
reflection, 993–995
refraction, 996–1002
spherical mirrors, 1013–1016
thin lenses: ray tracing, 1002–1013
Ray tracing, 1002–1008, 1015
RC circuits, 814–816
RC filter circuits, 940–941
Real images, 1004, 1014
Red shift, 463
Reference frames
accelerating, 122
in Galilean relativity, 1053–1054
inertial, 122–123, 907–908, 1054, 1069
in special relativity, 1056–1059
Reflecting telescopes, 1037
Reflection, 993–995, 999
Reflection gratings, 970
Refracting telescopes, 1037
Refraction
angle of, 996
image formation by, 1001–1002
index of, 452–453, 982, 996–997, 999, 1038
ray optics and, 1008–1013
sign convention for, 1009
Snell’s law of, 997, 1002
Refrigerators, 604–605, 610–612
Relative biological effectiveness (RBE), 1260
Relative motion, 90
Relativity, 1053–1086
causal influence and, 1080–1081
clock synchronization, 1060–1061
Einstein’s principle of, 1056–1059
energy and, 1081–1086
events and, 1059–1062, 1074
Galilean, 911, 1053–1056
general, 1053
length contraction, 1069–1073
Lorentz transformations, 1073–1074
measurements and, 1060
momentum and, 1078–1080
problem-solving strategy, 1074–1076
proper time, 1066–1067
simultaneity and, 1062–1064
special, 1053
time dilation and, 1065–1069
rem, 1260
Resistance, 785–786
equivalent, 804, 808
internal, 805–806
Resistivity, 783, 785–786, 789
Resistor circuits, 810, 936–938
Resistors, 787–788
combination of, 809
energy dissipation in, 801–802, 948–949
Ohm’s law and, 798
parallel, 807–810
series, 803–805, 809
Resolution
angular, 1043
of optical instruments, 1040–1044
Resonance
oscillation and, 423–424
series RLC circuits, 946–947
standing-wave resonance, 483
Resonance frequency, 423–424, 946
Rest energy, 1082–1083
Rest frame, 1065
Restoring force, 223–224, 348, 412
Resultant vectors, 67
Retina (human eye), 1031
Reynolds number, 147
drag and, 146
motion at low, 149–150
Right-hand rule, 324, 828–829, 845
Rigid body
angular momentum of, 327–328
equilibrium of, 317–320
rotation of, 301–333
Rigid-body model, 301
Ring of charge, 669–670, 747
RLC circuits, 944–947, 950–951
Rocket propulsion, 287–289
Rolling constraint, 321
Rolling friction, 142
Rolling motion, 320–323
Root-mean-square (rms) current, 948
Root-mean-square (rms) speed, 568–569
Ropes and pulleys, 173–176
constraints due to, 316
massless string approximation, 174–175
tension forces, 173–174
Rotational dynamics, 313–315
Rotational kinematics, 301–302
Rotational kinetic energy, 305–306
Rotational motion
about a fixed axis, 315–317
about the center of mass, 302–305
angular momentum, 326–330
Newton’s second law for rotational motion, 313–314
rolling motion, 320–323
rotational dynamics, 313–315
torque, 309–313, 325–326
vector description of, 323–326, 334
rtz-coordinates, 188–189
Ruby laser, 1232–1233
Rutherford model of the atom, 1105, 1133
Satellites
geosynchronous orbits, 354–355
orbital energetics, 356–357
orbits, 195, 348, 353–355
Scalar product, 219
Scalars, 6, 66
Scanning tunneling microscope (STM), 1201
Scattering angle, 1125
Schrödinger equation, 1172–1176
Screening, 708
Sea of electrons, 636, 773–775
Second (s), 22
Secondary coil, 886
Secondary maxima, 970
Second law of thermodynamics, 577–581, 585, 599
Selection rule, 1224
Self-inductance, 887
Semiconductors, 1202
Series capacitors, 756–757
Series resistors, 803–805, 809
Shell model of atoms, 1214–1215
Shell model of the nucleus, 1248–1250
Short circuit, 807
Sieverts (Sv), 1260
Sign conventions
for acceleration, 44
for electric and magnetic flux, 913
for motion in one dimension, 15–16
for refraction, 1009
for rotational motion, 302
for spherical mirrors, 1016
for thin lenses, 1011
Significant figures, 23–25
Simple harmonic motion (SHM)
circular motion and, 406–407
dynamics of, 411–413
energy in, 409–410
kinematics of, 403–405
phase of, 407–408
Simple-harmonic-motion model, 418
Simultaneity, 1062–1064
Single-slit diffraction, 970–976
Sinusoidal waves, 442–446
fundamental relationship for, 443
generating, 450
phase of, 458
wavelength, 442–443
wave number, 444
SI units, 21–23
Small-angle approximation, 416–417
Snapshot graph, 439–440, 1161
Snell’s law, 997, 1002
Sodium, 1225–1226
Solenoids, 832, 843–844, 879–880
Solids
ball-and-spring model of, 113–114
color in, 1226–1227
degrees of freedom, 573
specific heats and molar specific heats, 542
Sound intensity level, 460–461, 464
Sound waves, 450–451
beats and, 493–495
Doppler effect, 461–464
interference of, 483–486
speed of, 450–451, 455–457
standing waves and musical acoustics, 479–483
wave equation for, 454–457
Source charges, 647, 726
South pole, 827–829, 837
Spacetime coordinates, 1059–1060, 1073–1074
Spacetime interval, 1071–1073
Special relativity, 1053
Specific heat
of gases, 547–549
molar, 543
of solids and liquids, 542
thermal energy and, 571–574
Specific heat ratio, 551
Spectrometer, 1094
Spectroscopy, 969, 1094–1097
Spectrum
blackbody radiation, 1095
continuous, 1094–1095
discrete, 1096–1097, 1139
emission, 1096–1097, 1138–1139, 1226
Specular reflection, 993
Speed, 33
average, 8
escape, 351
of light, 451–452, 1057–1058
molecular, 565–566
root-mean-square, 568–569
of sound, 455–457, 1055
terminal, 147–148
velocity versus, 8
Sphere of charge, 660, 673, 703–704, 708–709, 723, 733–734
Spherical aberration, 1041
Spherical mirrors, 1013–1016
Spherical symmetry, 691–692
Spherical waves, 457
Spin, of electrons, 855, 1215–1217
Spin quantum number, 1216
Spontaneous emission, 1230–1231
Spring constant, 223, 229–230
Spring force, 113
Springs.
elastic potential energy, 246–248
force law, 223
ideal, 223
work done by, 224–225
Spring scale, 139
Stability and balance, 320
Stable equilibrium, 252
Stable isotopes, 1242
Standard atmosphere (atm), 369
Standing waves, 473–483
boundary conditions, 476
creating, 476–478
electromagnetic, 478–479
mathematics of, 474–475
musical acoustics, 479–480, 482–483
nodes and antinodes, 474–475
sound waves, 479–483
on a string, 475–479
State variables, 507, 516
Static equilibrium, 317–320, 650
Static equilibrium model, 317
Static friction, 115, 141
Stationary state
Bohr’s model of the atom, 1130–1132
hydrogen atoms, 1133–1136, 1209–1210
Schrödinger equation, 1176
Stern-Gerlach experiment, 1216–1217
Stick-slip motion, 224
Stimulated emission, 1230–1231
Stokes’ law, 149
Stopping potential, 1116–1118
STP (standard temperature and pressure), 518
Strain, 391
Streamlines, 381
Stress, 390–392
Strong force, 1189, 1247–1248
Subatomic particles, 1101
Sublimation, 514
Sublimation temperature, 515
Superconductivity, 784
Superposition, 472–496.
beats, 493–495
of electric fields, 661
of forces, 112
of magnetic fields, 831
principle of, 472
and wave packets, 1159
Surface charge, 777
Surface charge density, 665
Surface integral, 693, 695–697
Symmetry
of electric fields, 689–690
reasoning with, 690
Synchronization, clock, 1060–1061
System
bound, 356
isolated, 248, 274
multiplicity of, 582–584
of particles, 164, 273–274
total energy of, 532
System energy, 211
Tangential acceleration, 100
Telescopes, 1026, 1036–1037
Temperature, 510–512
absolute temperature, 511
Celsius scale, 511
Kelvin scale, 511–512
molecular kinetic energy and, 569–571
specific heat and change in, 542–543
thermal energy and, 510–511
Tensile stress, 390–391
Tension force, 113–114, 173–174, 229
Terminal speed, 147–148
Terminal voltage, 753, 805
Tesla (T), 830
Thermal conductivity, 553
Thermal efficiency, 601–602
Thermal emission, 1117
Thermal energy, 225–227
dissipative forces and, 225–227
heat and temperature versus, 539
specific heat and, 571–574
Thermal equilibrium, 507, 519, 538, 575–577
Thermal expansion, 510, 512–513
Thermal inertia, 543
Thermal interactions, 538
Thermal properties of matter, 542
Thermal radiation, 1094
Thermodynamic energy model, 540
Thermodynamics
first law of, 540–541, 579, 599
micro/macro connection, 565
second law of, 577–581, 585, 599
Thin-film optical coatings, 488–490
Thin-lens equation, 1011
Thin lenses
focal length of, 1002–1003, 1011
image formation by, 1003, 1012–1013
ray tracing and, 1002–1008
refraction theory, 1008–1013
sign convention for, 1011
Threshold frequency, 1116, 1122
Threshold of hearing, 460
Thrust, 115
Time
arrow of, 579
proper, 1066–1067
spacetime coordinates, 1059–1060, 1073–1074
Time constant
of damped oscillation, 421–422
LR circuits and, 894–895
RC circuits and, 815
Time dilation, 1065–1069
Time interval, 8
Torque, 309–312
constant-torque model, 316
on current loops, 853–854
gravitational, 312–313
net, 312
torque vector, 325–326
Total energy, 1082–1083
Total internal reflection (TIR), 999–1000, 1004
Touchscreens, 804
Trajectory, 3, 81–84
Transformers, 886–887
Transition
allowed, 1224
nonradiative, 1227, 1233
radiative, 1231
Translational motion, 3, 301
Transmission grating, 970
Transverse waves, 437, 454
Traveling waves, 437–464
amplitude of, 442
displacement of, 441–442
Doppler effect, 461–464
longitudinal, 441
medium of, 437
power of, 459–460
sinusoidal waves, 442–446, 450
sound and light waves, 450–454
types of, 437
Triple point, 515
Tunneling, quantum-mechanical, 1198–1202
Turbulence, 389–390
Turbulent flow, 381
Turning point, 40, 251
Twin paradox, 1068–1069
Ultrasound, 451
Uncertainty, 1160–1161
Uncertainty principle, 1161–1163
Uniform circular motion, 92–96
centripetal acceleration, 96–97
dynamics of, 188–190
speed and period of, 92
Uniform electric field, 675–676, 678–679, 719–720
Uniform magnetic field, 843, 847
Uniform motion, 33–36
Unit vector notation, 648–649
Unit vectors, 72–73
Unit volume, 366
Universal gas constant, 516
Unstable equilibrium, 252
Upright images, 1007
Vacuum, 368
Van Allen radiation belt, 848
Van de Graaff generator, 752
Vapor pressure, 368, 373
Vector cross product, 831–832
Vector math
addition, 67
algebraic addition, 74
multiplication, 74
subtraction, 68, 74
Vectors 66–79
acceleration, 11–12, 14, 71–72, 83–84
components, 69–72
cross product of, 324–325
decomposition, 70, 73
displacement, 6–9, 66–67, 74
dot product of, 219–221
force, 112
magnitude, 6, 66
unit 72–73
velocity, 8–10, 66
Velocity, 8–10
Angular, 94–96
average, 8–10, 33
finding from acceleration, 55
finding position from, 40–41
Galilean transformations of, 1055
instantaneous, 37–40
Lorentz transformation of, 1077–1078
relative, 90–92
sign of, 15–16
Velocity-energy-momentum triangle, 1083
Velocity selector, 565
Velocity-versus-time graphs, 34, 38–39
Venturi tube, 385–386
Vibrational energy levels, 1194
Virtual images, 995, 1004, 1006–1008
Viscosity, 146, 380, 386–388
Viscous drag, 148–149
Viscous fluid flow, 386–390
Visible spectrum, 452, 1038
Vision, human, 1031–1033, 1044
Volt (V), 726
Voltage
capacitor, 754
Hall, 850
inductors, 888–889
instantaneous, 936
peak, 937
potential difference and, 727
resistor, 937–938
root-mean-square, 940
terminal, 753, 805
Voltmeters, 809–810
Volume
flow rate, 382, 387
in ideal-gas processes, 520
Volume strain, 390, 392
Volume stress, 392
Waste heat, 602
Watt (W), 228
Wave equation
electromagnetic waves and, 921–922
in a fluid, 454–455
on a string, 446–448
Wave fronts, 457
Wave functions, 1154–1155
drawing, 1191
finding, 1178–1179
normalizing, 1157, 1180
properties of, 1175
radial, 1213–1214
Wavelength, 442
de Broglie, 1126, 1172–1173
of light, 451–452
of sinusoidal waves, 442–443
of sound waves, 480–481
Wave model
of light, 962, 978–979
traveling waves, 437
Wave number, 444
Wave optics, 961–982
circular-aperture diffraction, 977–978
diffraction grating, 967–970
interference of light, 962–967
models of light, 961–962
single-slit diffraction, 970–976
Wave packets, 1158–1160
photons as, 1124
uncertainty and, 1160–1161
Waves.
electromagnetic, 437, 454
intensity of, 459
interference of, 401
longitudinal, 437, 454
matter wave, 1126–1129
mechanical, 437, 454
superposition and, 962
transverse, 437, 454
Wave speed, 437–438
Weak interactions, 1257–1258
Weber (Wb), 873
Weight, 139
gravitational force and, 345–346
mass versus, 137–140
Weightlessness, 140
Wien’s law, 1095
Work, 212, 215
calculating work done, 217–222
done by springs, 223–225
as dot product of two vectors, 219–221
energy principle and, 212
heat and, 538, 599–601
in ideal-gas processes, 533–537
kinetic energy and, 213–216
potential energy and, 238–239
sign of, 216
of variable force, 222
zero-work situations, 221–222
Work function, 1117, 1201
X rays, 1098–1099
X-ray scattering, 1126
Young’s double-slit experiment, 963–964
Young’s modulus, 390–392
Zero of potential energy, 241
Zero-point motion, 1182–1183
Zero vector, 68
Zoom lens, 1028–1029